ORIGINAL PAPER
California verbal learning test trial among the polish homeless
1
Department of Pulmonology, School of Public Health, Collegium Medicum, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Poland
2
Department of Clinical Neuropsychology, Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Poland
3
Faculty of Theology, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Poland
4
Provincial Psychiatric Treatment Unit in Olsztyn, Poland
5
Department of Biopharmacy, Ludwik Rydygier Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Poland
Submission date: 2023-10-15
Final revision date: 2023-11-02
Acceptance date: 2023-11-02
Online publication date: 2023-12-31
Corresponding author
Anna Romaszko-Wojtowicz
Department of Pulmonology, School of Public Health, Collegium Medicum, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Jagiellońska 78, 10-357 Olsztyn, Poland.
Department of Pulmonology, School of Public Health, Collegium Medicum, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Jagiellońska 78, 10-357 Olsztyn, Poland.
Acta Elbingensia 2023;50(1):10-18
KEYWORDS
TOPICS
ABSTRACT
Introduction:
Reports on the low intellectual level of the homeless are quite numerous and independent of the geographical location of the study.
Aim:
The aim is to assess cognitive functions among the homeless as measured by the California verbal learning test (CVLT).
Material and methods:
In our study we included 102 homeless people to assess the functioning of verbal memory using the CVLT. The absolute value of the sum of the results in tasks 1–5 amounted only to 36.21 (SD 10.63). Almost 42% of the subjects obtained a sten score of 1 or 2 for this task.
Results and discussion:
In all tested CVLT parameters the homeless people, who were the respondents of the present study, obtained results that were significantly below standards (low or very low).
Conclusions:
These results indicate the presence of large numbers of people with severe verbal memory disorders among the homeless.
Reports on the low intellectual level of the homeless are quite numerous and independent of the geographical location of the study.
Aim:
The aim is to assess cognitive functions among the homeless as measured by the California verbal learning test (CVLT).
Material and methods:
In our study we included 102 homeless people to assess the functioning of verbal memory using the CVLT. The absolute value of the sum of the results in tasks 1–5 amounted only to 36.21 (SD 10.63). Almost 42% of the subjects obtained a sten score of 1 or 2 for this task.
Results and discussion:
In all tested CVLT parameters the homeless people, who were the respondents of the present study, obtained results that were significantly below standards (low or very low).
Conclusions:
These results indicate the presence of large numbers of people with severe verbal memory disorders among the homeless.
FUNDING
We declare no financial support from any organization.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
REFERENCES (56)
1.
Bremner AJ, Duke PJ, Nelson HE, Pantelis C, Barnes TR. Cognitive function and duration of rooflessness in entrants to a hostel for homeless men. Br J Psychiatry. 1996;169(4):434–439. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.16....
2.
Oakes PM, Davies RC. Intellectual disability in homeless adults: A prevalence study. J Intellect Disabil. 2008;12(4):325–334. https://doi.org/10.1177/174462....
3.
Gonzalez EA, Dieter JNI, Natale RA, Tanner SL. Neuropsychological evaluation of higher functioning homeless persons: a comparison of an abbreviated test battery to the mini-mental state exam. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2001;189(3):176–181. https://doi.org/10.1097/000050....
4.
Tripathi A, Nischal A, Dalal PK, et al. Sociodemographic and clinical profile of homeless mentally ill inpatients in a north Indian medical university. Asian J Psychiatr. 2013;6(5):404–409. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AJP.....
5.
Nishio A, Yamamoto M, Horita R, et al. Prevalence of mental illness, cognitive disability, and their overlap among the homeless in Nagoya, Japan. PLoS One. 2015;10(9):e0138052. https://doi.org/10.1371/JOURNA....
6.
Nishio A, Yamamoto M, Ueki H, et al. Prevalence of mental illness, intellectual disability, and developmental disability among homeless people in Nagoya, Japan: A case series study. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2015;69(9):534–542. https://doi.org/10.1111/PCN.12....
7.
Burra TA, Stergiopoulos V, Rourke SB. A systematic review of cognitive deficits in homeless adults: implications for service delivery. Can J Psychiatry. 2009;54(2):123–133. https://doi.org/10.1177/070674....
8.
McMillan TM, Laurie M, Oddy M, Menzies M, Stewart E, Wainman-Lefley J. Head injury and mortality in the homeless. J Neurotrauma. 2015;32(2):116–119. https://doi.org/10.1089/NEU.20....
9.
Svoboda T, Ramsay JT. High rates of head injury among homeless and low-income housed men: a retrospective cohort study. Emerg Med J. 2014;31(7):571–575. https://doi.org/10.1136/EMERME....
10.
Ministry of Family and Social Policy. A nationwide survey of the number of homeless [in Polish]. https://www.gov.pl/web/rodzina.... Accessed: 2023-04-20.
11.
Krajewska-Kułak E, Wejda U, Kułak-Bejda A, et al. Differing attitudes for various population groups towards homeless people. Prog Health Sci. 2016;6(1):57–62. https://doi.org/10.5604/01.300....
12.
Fazel S, Khosla V, Doll H, Geddes J. The prevalence of mental disorders among the homeless in western countries: systematic review and meta-regression analysis. PLoS Med. 2008;5(12):1670–1681. https://doi.org/10.1371/JOURNA....
13.
Krausz RM, Clarkson AF, Strehlau V, Torchalla I, Li K, Schuetz CG. Mental disorder, service use, and barriers to care among 500 homeless people in 3 different urban settings. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2013;48(8):1235–1243. https://doi.org/10.1007/S00127....
14.
Romaszko J, Kuchta R, Opalach C, et al. Socioeconomic characteristics, health risk factors and alcohol consumption among the homeless in north-eastern part of Poland. Cent Eur J Public Health. 2017;25(1):29–34. https://doi.org/10.21101/CEJPH....
15.
Fekadu A, Hanlon C, Gebre-Eyesus E, et al. Burden of mental disorders and unmet needs among street homeless people in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. BMC Med. 2014;12(1):12. https://doi.org/10.1186/S12916....
16.
McVicar D, Moschion J, van Ours JC. From substance use to homelessness or vice versa? Soc Sci Med. 2015;136–137:89–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SOCS....
17.
Reinking DP, Wolf JR, Kroon H. High prevalence of mental disorders and addiction problems among the homeless in Utrecht [in Dutch]. Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd. 2001;145(24):1161–1166.
18.
Warburton WA, Papic M, Whittaker E. Heterogeneity among homeless Australian women and their reasons for homelessness entry. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022;19(15):8909. https://doi.org/10.3390/IJERPH....
19.
Boilson AM, Churchard A, Connolly M, Casey B, Sweeney MR. Screening for autism spectrum condition through Inner City homeless services in the Republic of Ireland. J Autism Dev Disord. 2023;53(10):3987–3998. https://doi.org/10.1007/S10803....
20.
Breakey WR, Fischer PJ, Kramer M, et al. Health and mental health problems of homeless men and women in Baltimore. JAMA. 1989;262(10):1352–1357. https://doi.org/10.1001/JAMA.1....
21.
Krok D, Zarzycka B. Risk perception of COVID-19, meaning-based resources and psychological well-being amongst healthcare personnel: The mediating role of coping. J Clin Med. 2020;9(10):1–15. https://doi.org/10.3390/JCM910....
22.
Krok D, Zarzycka B. Self-efficacy and psychological well-being in cardiac patients: Moderated mediation by affect and meaning-making. J Psychol. 2020;154(6):411–425. https://doi.org/10.1080/002239....
23.
Opalach C, Romaszko J, Jaracz M, Kuchta R, Borkowska A, Buciński A. Coping styles and alcohol dependence among homeless people. PLoS One. 2016;11(9):e0162381. https://doi.org/10.1371/JOURNA....
24.
Ali AM, Hendawy AO, Almarwani AM, et al. The Six-Item Version of the Internet Addiction Test: Its Development, Psychometric Properties, and Measurement Invariance among Women with Eating Disorders and Healthy School and University Students. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021;18(23):12341. https://doi.org/10.3390/IJERPH....
25.
Mahmood Z, Vella L, Maye JE, et al. Rates of cognitive and functional impairments among sheltered adults experiencing homelessness. Psychiatr Serv. 2021;72(3):333–337. https://doi.org/10.1176/APPI.P....
26.
Rabin LA, Barr WB, Burton LA. Assessment practices of clinical neuropsychologists in the United States and Canada: a survey of INS, NAN, and APA Division 40 members. Arch Clin Neuropsychol. 2005;20(1):33–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ACN.....
27.
Delis, DC, Kramer JH, Kaplan E, Thompkins BAO. California Verbal Learning Test. Adult Version Manual. San Antonia: The Psychological Corporation; 1987.
28.
Woods SP, Delis DC, Scott JC, Kramer JH, Holdnack JA. The California Verbal Learning Test – second edition: test-retest reliability, practice effects, and reliable change indices for the standard and alternate forms. Arch Clin Neuropsychol. 2006;21(5):413–420. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ACN.....
29.
Donders J. Subtypes of learning and memory on the California Verbal Learning Test-Second Edition (CVLT-II) in the standardization sample. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 2008;30(7):741–748. https://doi.org/10.1080/138033....
30.
Aslaksen PM, Bystad MK, Ørbo MC, Vangberg TR. The relation of hippocampal subfield volumes to verbal episodic memory measured by the California Verbal Learning Test II in healthy adults. Behavioural brain research. 2018;351:131–137. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.BBR.....
31.
Campos-Magdaleno M, Facal D, Lojo-Seoane C, Pereiro AX, Juncos-Rabadán O. Longitudinal assessment of verbal learning and memory in amnestic mild cognitive impairment: Practice effects and meaningful changes. Front Psychol. 2017;8:1231. https://doi.org/10.3389/FPSYG.....
32.
Gomez-Pinilla F, Tyagi E. Diet and cognition: interplay between cell metabolism and neuronal plasticity. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2013;16(6):726. https://doi.org/10.1097/MCO.0B....
33.
Donnelly JE, Hillman CH, Castelli D, et al. Physical Activity, Fitness, Cognitive Function, and Academic Achievement in Children: A Systematic Review. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2016;48(6):1223–1224. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.00....
34.
Egger F, Benzing V, Conzelmann A, Schmidt M. Boost your brain, while having a break! The effects of long-term cognitively engaging physical activity breaks on children’s executive functions and academic achievement. PLoS One. 2019;14(3):e0212482. https://doi.org/10.1371/JOURNA....
35.
Chaddock L, Pontifex MB, Hillman CH, Kramer AF. A review of the relation of aerobic fitness and physical activity to brain structure and function in children. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2011;17(6):975–985. https://doi.org/10.1017/S13556....
36.
Valentine G, Sofuoglu M. Cognitive effects of nicotine: Recent progress. Curr Neuropharmacol. 2018;16(4):403–414. https://doi.org/10.2174/157015....
37.
Piña-Escudero SD, López L, Sriram S, Longoria Ibarrola EM, Miller B, Lanata S. Neurodegenerative disease and the experience of homelessness. Front Neurol. 2021;11. https://doi.org/10.3389/FNEUR.....
38.
Stergiopoulos V, Cusi A, Bekele T, et al. Neurocognitive impairment in a large sample of homeless adults with mental illness. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2015;131(4):256–268. https://doi.org/10.1111/ACPS.1....
39.
Ennis N, Roy S, Topolovec-Vranic J. Memory impairment among people who are homeless: a systematic review. Memory. 2015;23(5):695–713. https://doi.org/10.1080/096582....
40.
Spence S, Stevens R, Parks R. Cognitive dysfunction in homeless adults: A systematic review. J R Soc Med. 2004;97(8):375–379. https://doi.org/10.1258/JRSM.9....
41.
Amore K, Baker M, Howden-Chapman P. The ETHOS definition and classification of homelessness: An analysis. Eur J Homeless. 2011;5(2):19–37.
42.
Łojek E, Stańczak J. CVLT. Manual of the California Verbal Learning Test. Polish Normalization. Warszawa: Pracownia Testów Psychologicznych Polskiego Towarzystwa Psychologicznego; 2010.
43.
Kibby MY, Schmitter-Edgecombe M, Long CJ. Ecological validity of neuropsychological tests: Focus on the California Verbal Learning Test and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. Arch Clinical Neuropsychol. 1998;13(6):523–534. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0887-....
44.
Sleet DA, Francescutti LH. Homelessness and Public Health: A Focus on Strategies and Solutions. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021;18(21):11660. https://doi.org/10.3390/IJERPH....
45.
Matzke J, Johnston B, Schneider T, Nelson D. A health needs assessment among Milwaukee’s homeless. WMJ. 2022;121(2):149–152.
46.
Thompson RG, Wall MM, Greenstein E, Grant BF, Hasin DS. Substance-use disorders and poverty as prospective predictors of first-time homelessness in the United States. Am J Public Health. 2013;103(Suppl 2):S282–S288. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2....
47.
Emerson E. Poverty and people with intellectual disabilities. Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev. 2007;13(2):107–113. https://doi.org/10.1002/MRDD.2....
48.
Bergen DC. Effects of poverty on cognitive function: A hidden neurologic epidemic. Neurology. 2008;71(6):447–451. https://doi.org/10.1212/01.WNL....
49.
Topolovec-Vranic J, Ennis N, Howatt M, et al. Traumatic brain injury among men in an urban homeless shelter: observational study of rates and mechanisms of injury. CMAJ Open. 2014;2(2):E69–E76. https://doi.org/10.9778/CMAJO.....
50.
Pluck G, Lee KH, David R, Spence SA, Parks RW. Neuropsychological and cognitive performance of homeless adults. Can J Behav Sci. 2012;44(1):9–15. https://doi.org/10.1037/A00253....
51.
Bezdicek O, Libon DJ, Stepankova H, et al. Development, validity, and normative data study for the 12-word Philadelphia Verbal Learning Test [czP(r)VLT-12] among older and very old Czech adults. Clin Neuropsychol. 2014;28(7):1162–1181. https://doi.org/10.1080/138540....
52.
Rhoades H, Wenzel SL, Golinelli D, et al. The social context of homeless men’s substance use. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2011;118(2–3):320–325. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.DRUG....
53.
Toro PA, Hobden KL, Wyszacki Durham K, Oko-Riebau M, Bokszczanin A. Comparing the characteristics of homeless adults in Poland and the United States. Am J Community Psychol. 2014;53(1–2):134–145. https://doi.org/10.1007/S10464....
54.
Busch-Geertsema V, Benjaminsen L, Filipovič Hrast M, Pleace N. Extent and Profile of Homelessness in European Member States. Brussels: ISBL. 2014.
55.
van Straaten B, Rodenburg G, van der Laan J, Boersma SN, Wolf JRLM, Van de Mheen D. Self-reported care needs of Dutch homeless people with and without a suspected intellectual disability: A 1.5-year follow-up study. Health Soc Care Community. 2017;25(1):123–136. https://doi.org/10.1111/HSC.12....
56.
Brown M, McCann E. Homelessness and people with intellectual disabilities: A systematic review of the international research evidence. J Appl Res Intellect Disabil. 2021;34(2):390–401. https://doi.org/10.1111/JAR.12....
| ISSN: | 1730-9980 |
We process personal data collected when visiting the website. The function of obtaining information about users and their behavior is carried out by voluntarily entered information in forms and saving cookies in end devices. Data, including cookies, are used to provide services, improve the user experience and to analyze the traffic in accordance with the Privacy policy. Data are also collected and processed by Google Analytics tool (more).
You can change cookies settings in your browser. Restricted use of cookies in the browser configuration may affect some functionalities of the website.
You can change cookies settings in your browser. Restricted use of cookies in the browser configuration may affect some functionalities of the website.
